....:Threads Of Fate:....

2004-08-18T17:12:00.000-07:00

I can't post the new MC90 lesson because the disk someone lent me is not formatted.
Out.

2004-08-03T16:37:00.000-07:00

Interpersonal Communication Theories (continuation)Social Penetration TheoryLittlejohn, Stephen W. “Theories of Human Communication” 3rd ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing, c1989, (pp.186-187)

What is Social Penetration?
=It is a process of increasing intimacy in a relationship
-the more communiactors know each other as persons, the more of an interpersonal charater their communication takes on.
-the less they know one another as persons, the more impersonal that communication is.

DO YOU THINK BEFORE DOING SOMETHING?WHAT DO YOU THINK OF BEFORE DOING SOMETHING?HOW OFTEN DO YOU STOP AND THINK OF THE POSSIBILE CONSEQUENCE OF YOUR ACTIONS?

-Humans have a natural tendency to predict the outcomes of their actions. (how?)
-this is based on the kinds of information humans receive from and about other people. (example?)

3 KINDS OF INFORMATION
1.Cultural information - people's shared cultural attributes (language, values, beliefs...)-CI allows us to perform acceptably in social situations-but it is shallow and impersonal (why?)

2.Sociological information-SI refers to people's social groups and roles-Example: it allows us to successfully communicate with a doctor.-But it is abstract and general- e.g. we still know little about the person as a person

3.Psychological information-PI refers to people's individual traits, feelings, attitudes, and other important personal data.
-it is the most useful type of information in making predictions about how an individual will respond in communication
-most specific and intimate

SOCIAL PENETRATION
-is the process of moving from cultural interaction to psychological interaction
-as relationships develop, communication moves from relatively shallow, now-intimate levels to deeper, more personal ones.

Communicators’ personalities are like a circle with layers with breadth and depth

breadth – is the variety of topics that have been incorporated into the individual’s life.
depth - is the amount of information available on each topic.

- On the outermost shell are highly visible levels of information like dress and speech - Inside are increasingly private details about the individual’s life, feelings, and thoughts.
- As the relationship develops, the partners share more aspects of the self (breadth) as well as deeper levels of each aspect.
- Such communication involves exchanging information – feelings and sharing activities.
Communication - proceeds by levels.
Example: friends becoming lovers

Communicators - assess the relationship’s rewards and costs at that moment and later on
+ The greater the perceived rewards relative to the cost, the more penetration will occur & the greater the rate of penetration.
+ The most rapid penetration occurs in the early stages of development

4 Stages of Relational Development:

1. Orientation – public information2.
Exploratory affective information – initial expansion of information and movement of a deeper level of disclosure on the topics chosen

2. Affective exchange
– more feelings at a deeper level that are evaluative and critical
– this stage will not be entered unless the partners have perceived substantial rewards relative to costs in earlier stages.

3. Stable exchange
– highly intimate.
– It allows the partners to predict one another’s actions and responses very well.

SOCIAL PENETRATION–
may not happen in a strictly linear fashion it may occur in a back and forth cyclical fashion. – A couple may go in and out of a stage as they test the rewards and costs. They may dwell at a stage for any length of time, or they may move on to the next one.

2004-08-03T16:32:00.000-07:00

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES - COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Littlejohn, Stephen W. “Theories of Human Communication” 3rd ed. California: Wadsworth Publishing, c1989, (pp.99-90)

FACTS about HUMANS:

- People are more comfortable with consistency than inconsistency.
- The goal of an open system is self-maintenance and balance.
- Behavior change results from information that disrupts the balance of the cognitive system.
So, what is this theory of ‘cognitive dissonance’?
* Cognitive elements: attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and behaviors
* attitude and behavior have one of the 3 kinds of relationships:
a.) null/irrelevant b.) consistent/consonant c.) dissonant

Dissonant/Dissonance???

-It is a relationship in which one element would not be expected to follow from the other.
What happens to a person when there is dissonance? - s/he experiences tension and stress which pressures him/her to change so that the dissonance is reduced - s/he avoids situations in which additional dissonance might be produced

* the greater the dissonance, the greater the need for change. * BUT: Always ask what is consonant or dissonant for a person’s own psychological system.

EXAMPLE: One day, you are faced with the decision to eat breakfast or not. 1st situation: you are expected to meet a friend to go shopping, but your alarm didn’t go off and you are running late.
Choice 1: you can skip breakfast and be on time Choice 2: you can eat breakfast and be a little late

? Whatever your choice will be, some dissonance will result! But the dissonance is small because neither eating breakfast nor being on time is important.
2nd situation: You are expected to be on time for work but your alarm didn’t go off and you are running late.

+ Most probably, you will choose to skip breakfast and be on time. In this case, there will also be a small amount of dissonance but the reasons are different.

you have a sense of obligation to your workyou want to make a good impression on your bossyou have to get work done that is stacked up on your desk from the day beforeand you want to avoid not getting paid the day’s wages

How do you think can the dissonance be reduced?

EXAMPLE: Situation: A smoker reads and hears a lot of facts about the health hazards of smoking
the dissonance that is produced might vary (it depends on the habit and the person’s values on health and life)

Choice 1: Stop smoking or reject the belief that smoking is unhealthy.Choice 2: Use smoking filters.Choice 3: Give more importance to a ‘high quality of life’ (not a ‘long life’).Choice 4: Read information that supports that smoking is not all that bad.Choice 5: Distort information: “Smoking is harmful only for people who are already sick anyway.”

1. change one or more of the cognitive elements2. new elements might be added to one side of the tension3. see the elements as less important than they used to be4. seek consonant information5. distort or misinterpret the information

What do you think are the situations in which dissonance is likely to result?

1. decision making2. forced compliance 3. initiation4. social support5. effort

1. Decision Making - Here, the amount of dissonance depends of 4 things:
a.) importance of the decision: skipping breakfast, buying a house, marrying, seeking a new job, moving to a new neighborhood, etc.
b.) attractiveness of the chosen alternative - the less attractive the chosen alternative, the greater the dissonance
c.) the greater the perceived attractiveness of the unchosen alternative, the more the felt dissonance
d.) the greater the degree of similarity or overlap between the alternatives, the less the dissonance (example: making a decision between two similar cars)

2. Forced Compliance
This is being induced to do or say something contrary to one’s beliefs or values. Usual situation: when a reward is involved for complying or a punishment for not complying. Prediction: the less the pressure to conform, the greater the dissonance

EXAMPLE: If you were asked to do something you didn’t like doing but you were paid a lot for doing it, you would not feel as much dissonance as if you were paid very little.

- the less reward or punishment, the more one must focus on the internal inconsistency.
This is why the “soft” social pressures may be powerful in inducing rationalization or change.

3. Initiation The more difficult one’s initiation to a group, the greater commitment one will have to that group.

4. Social Support
The more social support one receives from friends on an idea or action, the greater the pressure to believe in that idea or action.

5. Effort
The greater the amount of effort one puts into a task, the more one will rationalize the value of that task.

2004-08-03T16:26:00.000-07:00

Twelfth Article: Structural Theories of Nonverbal Communication
Theories of Human Communication
by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp.61-66)

* Scholars disagree about what nonverbal communication is. Why? The term is applied to a broad range of phenomena:

- facial expression and gesture
- fashion and status symbol
- dance and drama
- music and mime
- flow of traffic
- territoriality of animals
- protocol of diplomats
- extrasensory perception

*What are the structural properties of nonverbal code systems?

1.NVC tend to be analogic than digital.
- digital = discrete (numbers and letters)
- analogic = continuous, forming a
spectrum or range (sound
volume and brightness)
? ex: facial expression and vocal
intonation cannot simply be
classed into one category or another.

2. iconicity or resemblance
(is found in some, not all NVC) Iconic codes resemble the thing being symbolized ex: depicting the shape of something with your hands.

3. universal meaning
? ex: threats and emotional displays
(may be biologically determined)

4. simultaneous transmission
ex: with the face, body, voice, etc., several messages can be sent at once

5. evoke an automatic response
ex: stepping on the brakes at a red
light

6. emitted spontaneously
ex: when being nervous or angry or sad,
one starts to shake, turn red
involuntarily

*What are the various dimensions of NVC?
1. Semantics - meanings of a sign
What does the nonverbal sign mean?

2. Syntactics - the ways in which signs are
organized into systems with other signs
How does the nonverbal sign relate to
other signs?

3. Pragmatics the effects or behaviors elicited by a sign or group of signs# How does the non-verbal sign (or its group of signs) affect behavior?#

*The meanings attached to VC and NVC depend on what?
They are determined by the context in
which they are produced and read.

*NVC are classed according to the types of activity used in the code. What are these 7 types?#

1. kinesics (“body language”)
2. proxemics or use of space
3. physical appearance
4. haptics or use of touch
5. vocalics or use of voice
6. chronemics or use of time
7. artifacts or use of objects

*KINESICS: #There is a link between bodily activity and language!!!#
“The kinesic system has forms which are astonishingly like words in language. There are body behaviors which function like sounds, that combine into simple or relatively complex units like words, which are combined much longer stretches of structured behavior like sentences or even paragraphs.”

#*PROXEMICS: #It Is the way space is used in interaction - It is very much a cultural matter. #- distance between persons in their conduct of daily transactions#- organization of space in their houses and buildings#- the layout of their towns.##

American culture #sight and hearing dominate; less touching#
Arabian culture# smell dominates; a lot of touching#

+ Proxemic relations vary among cultures
because of differences in the definition of the
self.
Western cultures
= identify the self through skin and clothes
Arabs
= place the self deeper in the middle of the body.

*What are the 3 basic types of space?#
1. Fixed-feature space
> consists of the unmovable structural arrangements
> Example: walls and rooms

2. Semi-fixed feature space
> the way in which movable obstacles are arranged.
> Example: tables and chairs

3.Informal space #> determines the interpersonal distance among individuals #> Example: intimate, personal, social # and public#

*What are the 8 factors involved in the distance between people when they are in conversation?#

1. Posture-sex factors
= sex (male or female) &
basic position (standing, sitting, lying)

2. Sociofugal-sociopetal axis #= it is the angle of the shoulders relative to the other person (back to back, facing each other or beside each other)##- sociofugal – implies discouragement of # interaction#- sociopetal – implies encouragement of # interaction#

3. Kinesthetic factors #= it is the closeness of persons in terms of touch-ability. #= it is the positioning of body parts and which body parts are touching#

4. Touching behavior
= caressing and holding, feeling, prolonged holding, pressing against, spot touching, accidental brushing or no contact.

5. Visual code = manner or eye contact (direct eye-to-eye contact to no contact)#

6. Thermal code = it is the perceived
heat from the other communicator

7. Olfactory code = it is the kind and degree of odor perceived in the conversation

8. Voice loudness = loudness of speech relates directly to interpersonal space

Eckman and Friesen= approached NVC from 3 perspectives:

1. Origin – is the source of an act
Examples:
a.) innate (built in the nervous system) EX: raising eyebrows when surprised
b.) species constant (universal behavior required for survival) EX: being territorial
c.) variant across cultures, groups, and individuals EX: shaking had back and forth to say ‘no’

2. Coding – is the relationship of the act to its meaning

a.) arbitrary (no indication of meaning is
inherent in the sign itself) Ex: nodding head
b.) iconic (resemble what is being signified)
Ex: drawing pictures in the air
c.) intrinsic (cues that contain their meaning
within them) Ex: crying is a sign of emotion,
but is also part of the emotion itself.

3. Usage – Usage includes the degree to which a nonverbal behavior is intended to convey information.

a.) communicative act – one which is used deliberately to convey meaning
b.) interactive act – one which influences the behavior of others.

An act is both communicative and interactive if it is intentional and influential.

Ex: waving at a friend and s/he waves back

c.) informative – ex: ducking into a hallway to avoid meeting an acquaintance coming your way. If the other person sees the avoidance, your behavior has been informative even though you did not intend to communicate.

All NVC is one of 5 types, depending on origin, coding, and usage.#

1. Emblem – Has a verbal translation of a rather precise meaning for a social group. They are used in a deliberate fashion to communicate a particular message.
- Ex: Victory “V” and the black power fist
- emblems are informative, are learned
culturally. They may be arbitrary or iconic
in coding.

3. Illustrators – used to illustrate what is
being said verbally
- they are intentional, though we may not always be directly aware of them

a.) batons (movements that accent or emphasize)#b.) ideographs (“sketching” the direction of a thought)#c.) deictic movements (pointing)#d.) spatial movements (depicting or outlining space)#e.) rhythmic movements (pacing motions)#f.) kinetographs (depicting physical actions)#g.) pictographs (drawing a picture in the air)#h.) emblematic movements (illustrating a verbal statement)#

*These types are not mutually exclusive; some motions are combinations of types. Illustrators are informative #or communicative and occasionally may be interactive. They are #also learned.#

3. Adaptor – serve to release bodily tension #- hand wringing, head scratching, foot jiggling#

a.) self-adaptors – occur in private and are directed to one’s own body.
- scratching, stroking, grooming, squeezing #
b.) alter-adaptors – are directed to another’s
body#
c.) object adaptors – are directed at things##

*Adaptors may be iconic or intrinsic. They are rarely intentional. They usually occur when a person is alone. They #are rarely communicative #and are sometimes interactive but often informative.#

4. Regulators – are used directly to regulate, control, or coordinate interaction

- ex: eye contact to signal speaking and listening roles in a conversation.

- they are interactive. They are coded intrinsically or iconically, and their
origin is culturally learned.

5. Affect Display – innate behaviors which involve the display of feelings and emotions.

- ex: facial expressions
- they are intrinsically coded and rarely
communicative, often interactive but always
informative.

2004-07-22T01:24:00.000-07:00

*FIRST SESSION: June 13, 2004
1. introduction of teacher

introduction of course: MC 90 Introduction to Communication Theories

class rules
· absences and late
· deadlines
· following instructions
· cheating: plagiarism
· cellphone
· dress code: ID, etc.
b. course description

course objectives
academic values and other values
· reading, comprehension, and discussion of primary and secondary sources
· research and data analysis
· group communication and collaboration
· scientific and critical thinking
· social awareness
· social responsibility
references
course requirements: read!3X
· recitation
· quizzes
· periodical exams
· group research paper and group presentation
grading system

Attendance

Recitation

Class standing

Examination

05%

15%

40%

40%

Recitation, Quizzes, Reports and Papers

40%

Prelim and Midterm Exams (15% each)

30%

Final Exam and Group Research Paper (15% each)

30%
3. introduction of students
· Pretend that you already know your partner. Introduce her/him creatively. Your goal is
to "sell" her/him to your classmates. Beware that you cannot repeat what somebody
has already said.
*SECOND SESSION: June 15, 2004
Coverage:
1. History of Communication
2. Verbal Communication Theories
3. Non Verbal Communication Theories
4. Interpersonal Communication Theories
5. Group and Organizational Communication Theories
6. Communication Models
(29 assigned readings)
First Article: "The Study of Human Communication"
source: "Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies"
by Neuliep, James William (pp. 1-10)

What do the first two paragraphs say about ‘communication’?
· communication is everywhere and in different types

- ex: Americans are bombarded with 5,000 messages every day!
· communication is the ‘ability to symbolize and use language’
· communication separates us from animals
· humans use communication:
- to initiate, maintain, and terminate relationships
- to influence and persuade others
- to manage and resolve local, regional, national, and international conflicts
· communication can be the source of many problems
- breakdown in communication is the main reason for divorce
- making speeches in public is the most frequently cited fear, sometimes feared more
than death

According to the third paragraph, what kind of communication is the selection about?
Why is it important that we study HUMAN COMMUNICATIONS?
· answer to Q#1: ‘HUMAN COMMUNICATION’ (not theories about animals/machines or
mass communications) Why is it important?
· answer to Q #2:

because it helps us understand how and why communication operates
it identifies and examines the numerous dimensions in the communication process
it helps people predict their communication with others to develop appropriate interactive strategies
· Examples of HUMAN COMMUNICATION:

Persuasive Communication Theories - to understand and construct messages to influence others;
Interpersonal Communication Theories - to understand and manage relationships with family members, friends and spouses;
Organizational Communication Theories - enable managers and workers to effectively interact with each other and with consumers and producers
There are many definitions about the nature of ‘communication.’ Although there is no universally agreed-upon definition, ‘communication’ has nine dimensions, which most scholars agree about.

What are the nine dimensions and definitions of communication? Cite the example given in each dimension then think of another appropriate example.
¬ process, dynamic, interactive, transactional, symbolic, intentional, ubiquitous, cultural¬s

Is it possible not to communicate?
How can communication be non-intentional?
How is communication time bound and irriversible?
How is communication dynamic?
What you think are the important turning points in the history of communication.
Cite only 3 ‘turning points.’
The study of ‘communication’ can be approached from a variety of perspectives even outside the academic world. Examples:

problems between labor unions and management are described as ‘communication’ problems;
a recent survey indicates that the number one skill managers desire of their employees is the ability to ‘communicate’;
marriage counselors identify breakdowns in ‘communication’ as the number one reason why couples divorce;
the technological revolution is frequently discussed as the ‘communications’ explosion;
anyone involved in radio or television is in the ‘communications’ field;
Over thirty years ago, ‘communication’ concerns are broad in scope and permeate much of contemporary society.
4. What was the focus of the classical period of communication study during Plato and
Aristotle’s time in the fifth century B.C.?

‘rhetoric’ e.g., the study and delivery of public speeches; its role in the government of newly formed democracies.
5. What was the focus of the study of communication during the twentieth century?

There was the formation of the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking in 1914.
Speech teachers focus on the source of ideas, the place of logic and reason in speeches, elocution, the structure of ideas, and the relation of speaker to the audience.
But communication was not an academic discipline in its own right since rhetoricians and speech teachers were housed in English departments.
Soon however, they began to break away to form their own departments and practice a ‘humanistic’ brand of scholarship - the study of the achievements of creative people, art and literature.
6. How does ‘communication’ also have its roots in the scientific disciplines?

Leading social scientists who were interested in communication came from anthropology, economics, psychology, political science, sociology, and the natural sciences.
But there did not yet exist a ‘department of communication’ and no one could yet receive a degree in that discipline.
Many scientists studied communication form their own academic perspective and then returned to their respective fields of study. Examples:
· psychologists studied communication by examining how people used
messages to produce changes in the attitudes of others (fear appeals,
persuasibility).
· political scientists studied the communication effects of propaganda.
· mathematicians studied on mass communications and was interested in who
was listening and why
Eventually, such people introduced scientific methods to the study of communication and that is how doctorates in the scientific study of communication were soon offered.
The diverse historical nature of the field and the various perspectives represented therein have led to the development of a whole host of communication theories.

Rhetoricians and speech teachers adopt theories rooted in the humanities.
Communication scientists adopt theories from a social scientific perspective.
Because the ideals are represented on a continuum, no theory is purely scientific or humanistic. The theories that we will study integrate ideas from both perspectives.
Second Article: "Talk About Communication"
(source: http://www.afirstlook.com/archive/talkabout.cfm?source=archther
by: Em Griffin, c1997, McGraw-Hill, Inc.)
t communication is a hard term to define
t there are two views of communication: (1) scientific perspective (2) humanistic perspective

7. How do the two views define ‘communication’?
iscientific perspective - communication is the transmission and reception of information
ihumanistic perspective - communication is the generation of meaning
best definition: "communication is the management of messages for the purpose of creating
meaning."

this broad definition regards communication as an intentional activity, while not ruling out accidental outcomes.
It gives equal weight to messages and meanings.
Opens the door for studying both content and relationships.
Include verbal and nonverbal symbols.
4It is important to study the history of communication because we don’t know who we are unless we know where we’ve been.
ê Mention only the seven significant historical periods of communication theory, research, and
instruction. Often their dates overlap because they are hard to separate.
(1.) The Early Years (1900-1950): The Rise of Rhetoric
Ü ‘speech teachers’ were looked down by ‘literature teachers.’
Ü in 1914, to gain respect and to carve out an academic discipline for themselves, a small group
of speech teachers broke away from the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) to
form the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking (NAATPS) which
they later changed to Speech Association of America (SAA)
Ü by 1935, American schools finally had separate departments for speech (instead of putting
them under the English department)
Ü but it seemed that speech teachers were more concerned with gaining respectability than to
discover laws of oral effectiveness.
Ü for instance, specialized studies of speech disorders were only focused on stuttering and vocal
strain
Ü instruction: giving practical advice to those trying to influence audiences through public
address, oral interpretation of literature, radio announcing, drama, debate, and
roundtable discussion.
Ü authoritative sources for giving public address: the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and
Quintilian
- The analysis of public address is not concerned with permanence nor beauty but effect.
- It regards a ‘speech’ as a communication to a specific audience.
- The analysis was on the orator’s method of imparting ideas to his/her hearers.
- Aristotle’s logical, emotional, and ethical appeals are the standard way to evaluate
persuasive discourse.
- rhetoric was therefore considered an ‘art.’
- rhetorical analysis of radio, film, or television were dismissed as forms of entertainment
that didn’t have the importance of a formal political address or the public discussion of
issues.
(2.) Communication and Social Science (1930-1960): Media Effects
Ü Rhetoricians ignored the new mass communication technologies of film, radio, and television,
dismissing them as mere entertainment.
Ü On the other hand, there were scholars from the departments of sociology, psychology,
political science, and journalism who studied communication in their respective fields.
i‘Communication research’ - the scientific study of media effects.
Ü World War II - the reason for the urgent need to find effective ways to inform, influence,
and inspire maximum citizen support for the war effort.
Ü This lead to four leading social scientists from around America united to discover how
broadcast messages affected listeners. They are known as the "founders" of
communication research.
t Harold Lasswell (political scientist) analyzed the content of Nazi propaganda to
determine why it had a powerful effect on many who heard it. He
broke the communication process into five component parts: who
says what through which channel, to whom, with what effect.
t Kurt Lewin (social psychologist) investigated prejudice and the way groups influence
the decisions of individual members.
t Paul Lazarsfeld (sociologist) founded the Bureau of Applied Social Research to
attract business and government funding. His Radio Research Project
pioneered innovative survey and focus-group techniques to capture
the emotional impact of broadcasting.
t Carl Hovland (experimental psychologist) tested the persuasive effects of source
credibility, e.g., the believability of a speaker, and the order of
arguments within a message. He also analyzed the effect of "Why We
Fight" training films on soldier morale.
Wilbur Schramm - Director of the Stanford Institute for Communication Research.
- He set out to create a "crossroads discipline" of communication to
complement the five established social sciences of psychology, sociology,
political science, economics, and anthropology.
- by the end of the 1960s, Schramm created the first doctoral program in
mass communication and established the Institute of Communication
Research.
- achievements:

He trained the first generation of empirically oriented communication
researchers while avoiding any dialogue with existent departments of
speech based in the humanities.

This caused a division between the rhetorical arts and the behavioral sciences within the field and thus inhibited any blending of interest in interpersonal and mass communication study.
A number of his students joined speech department faculties and introduced their scientific methodologies and research agendas.
(3.) The Empirical Revolution (1950-1970): Theory In A Test Tube
Ü Old faculty versus younger faculty:
The old faculty still believed that persuasive discourse was a matter of using logical
arguments. The younger faculty were more skeptic because of their newly acquired
scientific methods to assess attitudes. So, they put this rhetorical principle to the test.
4For example: Aristotle said that the speaker’s intelligence, character and goodwill
influenced the audience to act favorably towards what he/she is saying.
Empirically oriented researchers found out that the credibility of the
speaker did include competence (intelligence) and trustworthiness
(character). BUT they also found out that the audience regarded the
speaker’s positive intentions (goodwill) the same as character.
Ü "Communication research" was thus adopted by scholars interested in using scientific
methods to assess communication. "Historical-critical textual analysis"

on the other hand, was used by the rhetoricians.
Ü in 1950, a group of communication researchers founded the International Communication
Association (ICA) as a science-based professional organization to rival the SAA
which was grounded in the humanities.
Ü conflict: traditional speech teachers accused communication researchers of always using the
newly acquired statistical tools no matter what the job required.
Ü Shannon and Weaver’s linear model of communication was reduced to four simple parts by
David Berlo, the writer of the leading communication textbook in the 1960s:
4SMCR model or Source-Message-Channel-Receiver
i provided a standard way to view the communication process
Ü Eventually, in 1969 the SAA changed its name to the Speech Communication Association
(SCA). This showed that speech departments now used the scientific approach.
(4.) The Turbulent Sixties (1960-1970): A Launching Pad For Interpersonal
Communication
Ü turbulent times: civil rights confrontations, urban riots, U.S. involvement in Vietnam,
campus sit-ins, the coming of the Beatles, the hippie movement, the sexual
revolution, the drug culture, and the assassinations of President John F.
Kennedy, his brother Bobby, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X.

· Who gave well-reasoned speeches anymore? Who would listen?
Ü transition: from public address to interpersonal and media communication

1960s

1970s

å SAA still thought of speech as platform art. å focus: public address, oral interpretation, argumentation and debate, persuasion, history of American public address, classical rhetoric å small-group communication: focused on discussion and decision making in the context of a structured meeting. å courses: to improve message organization, reduce speech fright, and eliminate distracting and ah’s and you know’s from speakers’ delivery

æ most faculty found public address outdated. æ focus: nonverbal communication, trust building, self-disclosure, conflict resolution, etc.. æ "encounter group movement" promoted an open and honest sharing of feelings between members and encouraged them to disregard social conventions that might inhibit gut-level expression. æ course: interpersonal communication replaced public speaking æ curriculum: centered on dyadic interactions that are characterized by a mutual awareness of the individuality of others æ experts: behavioral scientists did the research and humanists wrote the textbooks. · persuasion - became a dirty word. · communication ethics - ‘loyalty to your communication partner’ instead of ‘telling the truth’ · ‘what’ was said became secondary to ‘how’ it was said and to the way it affected others. · relationships were more important than message content.
(5.) The New Rhetorics (1965-1980)
*BEFORE: Aristotle’s logos, pathos and ethos were used to analyze the relationship between
message arguments and figures of speech in seventeenth and eighteenth century
England.
*NOW: Aristotle’s ways continue to offer a helpful way to analyze a message, the speaker who
gives it, and the audience that hears it.
*CHANGES:
· The protest movements of the 1960s made rhetorical critics realize that the impact of

public marches and sit-ins had little to do with carefully crafted speeches or well-
reasoned arguments. The sheer numbers of demonstrators and their militant behavior
spoke louder than any phrase or figure of speech.
· Articles on "The Rhetoric of Black Power," "The Rhetoric of Confrontation," and
other "rhetoric of…" studies began to appear in communication journals.
· Rhetoric became a study of discovering all possible means of persuasion, including
non-artistic methods used by demonstrators to capture the public’s attention - a raised
fist, a shouted obscenity, or the takeover of a public building (e.g., coercive techniques
of social agitation).
*MASS MEDIA
· Mass media was not anymore dismissed as "mere entertainment" but a "shaper of
popular culture."
· English professor Marshall McLuhan said that the content of television was almost
irrelevant. According to him, "The medium is the message." In response, thousands of
students set out to investigate this assertion.
*IN EUROPE
· British, French, Italian, and German scholars known as "critical theorists" pointed out
that American media research establishments were not neutral and always ended up
serving those who held political and economic power.
Ü by the end of this period, European critical theory had crossed the Atlantic and provided U.S.
rhetoricians with fresh ammunition for periodic clashes with social scientists.
(6.) The Hunt For A Universal Model (1970-1980)
Ü Each communication interest group studied separate aspects that they thought crucial to the
process of communication. Examples:
t public address researchers = aim to find causes and cures for speech anxiety
t group dynamics investigators = aim to analyze the traits and styles of leadership
t mass communication scholars = aim to analyze effects of television violence
t persuasion researchers = aim to find the different factors of source credibility
t interpersonal communicators = studied self-disclosure, self-esteem, trust, nonverbal
signs, conflict resolution, etc.
· problem: there was little discipline within the discipline because there was no universal
paradigm or a unifying theory/approach
Ü textbook writers:
- offered complex pictorial models of the communication process
- the intriguing illustrations looked like Monopoly boards, bedsprings, whirlpools, etc
- still, no one model generated a consensus
Ü conflicts among advocates of three types of theory Ø

laws (science approach),
rules (humanistic approach), and
systems (neither approach)
*systems theory - refuses to treat any conversation as an isolated event
- e.g., the communication system is a set of interdependent people who work

together to adapt to a changing environment.
- concentrate on patterns of relationships within the entire system.
- the communication event is greater than the sum of its parts.
· conclusion: Because there was no single compelling way of viewing communication, perhaps
a single paradigm wasn’t really necessary. Thus, the quest for a universal model
of communication lost much of its steam.
(7.) Ferment in the Field (1980-Present)
Ferment t refers to the mix of creative energy and stressful agitation that marks the field of
Communication
Ü SHIFT:
4College and university communication departments are more numerous than ever before. They often boast more majors and greater course enrollments than any other
department on campus. Students can now find many reading materials on specific interests in Communication Theory for example.
· Five recent trends in communication study:

Interpretative research - especially in cultural studies and feminist critiques
More studies using ethnography - example: there is less attention on how messages are interpreted by individual viewers.
Attempts to penetrate the "black box" of the mind by modeling the mental structures and cognitive processes that guide communication behavior.
Study of personal relationships - focus: romance, friendship, and family.
Wildly diverse interests and research agendas. (Evidence of the necessity of fragmentation)

Ü SUMMARY:
4At the start of this historical overview, the communication study was compared to a river with twin currents representing the arts and sciences. Now, the trickle has swelled to a broad river and the distinct approaches of the humanities and social sciences are equal in the amount of interest they generate.
4In the present state of knowledge, we cannot organize research and theory concerning rhetoric and communication within any single framework.
4The tension between behavioral scientists and rhetoricians continues to be a chief cause for division in the field.
4Since communication research and rhetorical study differ yet are both very important, we have to understand how to evaluate both kinds of theory.

GUIDE QUESTIONS First Article: "The Study of Human Communication" 1. What do the first two paragraphs say about ‘communication’? 2. According to the third paragraph, what kind of ‘communication’ is discussed in the article? Why do you think is it important that we study this kind of ‘communication’? 3. What are the nine dimensions and definitions of communication? Cite the example given in each dimension then try to think of another appropriate example. 4. What was the focus of the classical period of communication study during Plato and Aristotle’s time? 5. What was the focus of the study of communication during the twentieth century? 6. How does ‘communication’ also have its roots in the scientific disciplines?

Second Article: "Talk About Communication" 7. How do the two perspectives define ‘communication’? 8. Explain why this is the ‘best’ definition of communication: "Communication is the management of messages for the purpose of creating meaning." 9. Why do you think is it important to study the history of communication?

10. What is the major ‘issue’ in each of the seven significant historical periods of communication theory, research, and instruction period? (1.) The Early Years (1900-1950): The Rise of Rhetoric 4 Why did speech teachers have a hard time asserting themselves? 4 What was the focus of instruction of these speech teachers? 4 What was the standard way to evaluate persuasive discourse? 4 How were the rhetorical analysis of radio, film, or television regarded? (2.) Communication and Social Science (1930-1960): Media Effects 4 What was it that pushed for the urgent need to discover how broadcast messages affected listeners? 4 What was the conflict between rhetoricians and social scientists? 4 What is ‘communication research’? 4 Who is Wilbur Schramm? What two important things did he contribute to the field of communication? 4 Who are the founders of ‘communication research’? Briefly explain what they aimed to analyze or investigate in the field of communication. (3.) The Empirical Revolution (1950-1970): Theory In A Test Tube 4 What was the conflict between the old faculty and the new faculty? 4 What did the traditional speech teachers accuse communication researchers of? 4 What became the standard way to view the communication process? 4 What was evidence that speech departments now used the scientific approach? (4.) The Turbulent Sixties (1960-1970): A Launching Pad For Interpersonal Communication 4 What caused the transition from public speaking to interpersonal communication? 4 Explain the difference between the focus of public speaking and the focus of interpersonal communication. (5.) The New Rhetorics (1965-1980) 4 What made rhetorical critics realize about public speaking in the protest movements of the 1960s? 4 How do you think did Mass Media become regarded as ‘a shaper of popular culture’ instead of ‘mere entertainment’? 4 What did European critical theory accuse American media research establishments of? (6.) The Hunt For A Universal Model (1970-1980) 4 Explain why there was ‘little discipline within the discipline.’ 4 Was the illustration of the communication process by textbook writers helpful? 4 Why was it so hard for ‘communication experts’ to find a universal paradigm or a unifying theory/approach? 4 In the end, what did the communication experts conclude about creating a universal paradigm for communication? (7.) Ferment in the Field (1980-Present) 4 What does "ferment" mean? 4 How are communication departments now described? 4 Do you agree that we cannot organize research and theory concerning rhetoric and communication within any single framework? 4 Since communication research and rhetorical study differ yet are both very important, what should we do? 4 What are the five recent trends in communication study?
ASSIGNMENTS:
1.) read and present: "A preliminary investigation on the effects of text messaging on students’ grammar and spelling competencies" by Mildred A. Rojo-Laurilla

WHAT is the study about?
HOW was the study done?
WHAT are the results of the study?
WHAT do the results mean?
WHAT are the underlying communication theories of the results?
2.) read: "The Nature of Theory" ("Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William, pp. 23-26)
a. What is the simplest definition of a theory?
b. How do theories develop?
c. Why do we rely heavily on theories?
d. What is the difference between the theories of a ‘normal’ person and that of a
‘scholar’?
e. Figure 2.1 shows HOW theorists construct theories. Explain it in your own words.

f. How do you think must Corpenicus have come to the theory that the earth is not
the center of the universe but is only one of the several other planets circling the sun?
g. What are the 2 important ingredients in making a good theory? Explain.
h. Study the examples of descriptive theoretical statements shown in Table 2.1.
3.) read: "I.A. Richards" ("Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William pp. 121-123)
a. What does Richards say about the relationship between thoughts, symbols, and
referents? Using ‘chalk talk,’ go to the board and explain in your own words Richards’
semantic triangle that shows how these three elements work together to create meaning
whenever people communicate.
c. Give one example illustrating that there is no natural connection between any symbol
and the thing it represents.
d. Give one example about how a symbol can mean different things to different people.
e. Give one example showing how ‘past’ and ‘present’ experiences play an important role
in the creation of meaning.
f. What are Richards’ three most important contributions to the field of communication
study?
4.) read: "The Meaning of Meaning" (http://www/aforst;ppl.cp,/archive/meanmean.cfm?source=archter)

Why did Richards not like the old rhetoric?
Give a concrete example of what you think is the difference between information loss
in a conversation that is caused by ‘channel noise’ and one that is caused by the
‘nature of the language.’

What is the difference between a ‘sign’ and a ‘symbol’? Cite an example.
Prepare three different sentences to show how the same word changes its meaning depending on the context that it is used.
How does Richards describe ‘context’?
Brenda wanted to know, "When a guy says, ‘I love you,’ but wants me to ‘prove’ my affection physically, does he really love me?" In response, her teacher asked her, "What do you mean when you use the word love?" Why do you think is this an appropriate response?
Explain how Brenda came to the conclusion that there was a big contrast between the
love of her parents and the love of her boyfriend.

Prepare two different pictures of one kind of ‘thing’ (e.g., animal, person, idea, event, etc.) and paste them on a Manila Paper. Explain the link between the ‘word’ that is used to call this ‘thing’ and the actual ‘thing’ that the word represents to different persons.
Richards suggested what linguistic ways that will make people have a greater region of shared experiences to avoid talking past each other? Explain each linguistic aspect.
Why do you think the meanings of words change? Think of one word which past and present meanings are entirely different.
"If words have no intrinsic meaning, it seems perfectly reasonable to express an idea
by stringing together four or five common words instead of relying on a single
esoteric term that can easily be misinterpreted." - Think of a good example to
illustrate this concept.
*THIRD SESSION: June 22, 2004 (lecture 3 and 4)
QUIZ!
Test I.-

Is it possible not to communicate?
How can communication be non-intentional?
How is communication time-bound and irreversible?
How is communication dynamic?
Test II.- What do you think are the important turning points in the history of communication? Cite only one important ‘turning point.’
VERBAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES
Third Article: "The Nature of Theory"
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
pp. 23-26
What is a theory?
¯ It is any serious attempt to explain something.
How do theories develop?
¯ by common sense, by experience, by intuition
Why do we rely heavily on theories?
¯ To guide us in making decisions that greatly affect our lives.
What is the difference between the theories of a ‘normal’ person and that of a ‘scholar’?
¯ mere hunches
¯ careful, systematic, logically consistent sets of propositions subject to tests of verification
and falsification
Figure 2.1 shows how theorists construct theories. Explain it in your own words.
PAST EXPERIENCES/INTUITION
o
THEORY (explanation of the topic)
o
make PREDICTIONS
o
OBSERVE predictions
o
REPLICATION
- If the observations confirm the prediction = the theory is supported.
- If the observations do not confirm the prediction = the theory is refined/observe more
Think about how Corpernicus must have come to the conclusion that the earth is not the center of the universe but is only one of the several other planets circling the sun. How do you think must he have come to this conclusion when everyone else believed that the earth was a motionless spherical platform around which all other bodies in the universe revolved?
What are the 2 important ingredients in making a good theory?

descriptive sentences

- what is the subject?
- to what class possessing a certain property does the subject belong to?
Table 2.1 shows examples of descriptive theoretical statements

Theory

concept

Description

Newtonian Mechanics

Gravity

Gravity is a force that tends to draw all objects in earth’s sphere toward the center of the earth.

Behaviorism

Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning process whereby a stimulus is presented to some organism and when the desired response is made by the organism, some reinforcement or reward is given in order to either fix or strengthen the response.

Marxism

Materialism

Materialism is a conception of history and the way a society organizes itself. Everything is shaped by the economic system of a society which subtly affects the ideas people have.

propositions, postulates, or axioms

- they are based on past experiences or intuition
- they outline the general assumptions guiding theorists
- they describe the nature of things as they see them
So… on what proposition do you think was Corpernicus’ theory based?
Most people do not like theories. They’d rather apply some skill. Scientists say that without theories, there would be no application. What do you think about this?
Investigative study article: "The effects of texting on students’ languange competence"
1.) introduction
‰ humans’ desire to fly like a bird - airplanes, helicopters, space ships
- study the bodies of animals, study the atmosphere, gravity, etc. to create machines
‰ humans’ desire to get to their destinations fast - car, trains (first coal then electricity)
‰ how to bring up children who are smart, confident and good-natured?
- habit: read, say thank you, brush your teeth,
- by example: it’s okay to ask a lot of questions, help others

2.) presentation of assignments (e.g., students’ texting affects their spelling)

a. WHAT is the study about?
¯ Does texting really affect students’ English language competencies? (spelling & grammar)
¯ respondents: selected students of English One in DSLU and UPLP
¯ time: 3rd Term of SY 2000-2001

HOW was the study done?
¯ grammar test & spelling test
¯ survey questionnaire - about socio-demographic information, cellular phone profile, text
messaging profile or preferences and attitudes; and perceived effects
of text messaging
¯ texting behavior test - involved answering texts of research assistants to get opinions on
certain topics

WHAT are the results of the study?
¯ majority of the respondents are 17-18 years old
¯ they use prepaid phone cars of Php 400-500
¯ they usually text at night
¯ they text because it’s convenient
¯ they text in English (abbreviated form)
¯ they believe that texting has no effects at all to their language competencies
¯ thus, they are pro-texting

WHAT do the results mean?
¯ there is no difference in the grammar and spelling scores of cellular phone owners and non-owner
¯ texting a lot does not affect the respondents’ grammar and spelling

WHAT are the underlying communication theories of the results?
¯ MAGIC BULLET THEORY Ü explains why respondents perceive that texting has negative effects. Texting/ownership of a cellular phone (stimuli) operated like a ‘magic bullet’ because of its proliferation and widespread use. It instantly created an association in people’s minds that it will bring certain effect to them.
¯ USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY Ü explains that despite the perceived effects, the respondents are still pro-texting because of the gratification they get from texting. It allows them to communicate with others during a time that is most convenient for them. Also, they are able to spend according to their wishes.
¯ MEDIA DEPENDENCY THEORY Ü This theory asserts that the greater the need, the stronger will be the dependency, and the likelihood of the effect. But ownership and frequency of texting do not affect spelling and grammar scores. They are independent of the spelling and grammar scores gained.
Fourth Article: "The Functions of Theory"
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp.21-22)
What are the 9 important and overlapping functions of theory? Explain each function.

organizing and summarizing function
- We do not see the world in bits of data. Patterns must be sought and connections discovered. Theories and models do this. They also ‘add’ to accumulated knowledge so that we don’t have to start anew when investigating something.

focus function
- Theories focus attention on important variables and relationships. They also point out areas of investigation.

clarifying function
- Theories help us to understand relationships in communication and to interpret specific events.

observational function
- Theories tell us what to observe and especially how to observe a particular concept.

predictive function
- Theories allow us to make predictions about outcomes and effects in the data.

heuristic function
- Theories generate research and are guides for the direction that the research will take.

communicative function
- Theories provide an open forum for discussion, debate, and criticism. By doing this, we can compare and improve theories.

control function
- Theories aim to judge the effectiveness and propriety of certain behavior and establish ‘norms of performance.’ But most theories aim to merely ‘describe’ a certain phenomena.

generative function
- Theories challenge existing cultural life and generate new ways of living. In other words, theories aim to achieve a change.
QUIZ!
Test I.- Richards suggested 4 linguistic ways that will make people have a greater region of shared experiences to avoid talking past each other. Explain one.

Definition
Metaphor
Feedforward
Basic English
Test II.- Give one example illustrating that there is no natural connection between a symbol and the thing it represents.
Fifth Article: "I.A. Richards"
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
pp. 121-123

Introduction: read ‘text language’ (Internet)
What happens if a boy likes a girl and the girl likes the boy but they cannot tell each other their feelings? They end up texting each other a loooooot.
"Mwuah" means… "I love you"
"Wala lang" means… "I miss you"
"Ok ka lang?" means… "I care for you"
"Musta na?" means… "sino’ng love mo?"
"Secret" means… "ikaw"
"Anong problema mo?" means… "hurt naman ako"
"Kayo pa rin ba?" means… "ako naman"
"Chick boy ka pala eh!" means… "and kapal mo!!"
"Grabe ha!!" means… "selos ako"
"Saan?" means… "sama ako!"
"Shit!" means… "ako nalang kasi eh!!"
"Inaantok na ako" means… "wala kang kwentang kausap"
"May gagawin pa ako eh" means… "maghanap ka ng kausap mo"
"Bakit naman?" means… "alam mo namang ikaw lang"
"Nakakaaliw ka" means… "ang cute mo"
"Ewan" means… "oo"
"Ganon?" means… "kapal mo!!"
"Eh kasi" means… "nahihiya ako"
"Talaga lang ha?" means… "naku, bola!!"
"Basta" means… "magtanong ka pa"
"Busy ka?" means… "kausapin mo naman ako"
"Pwede ba" means… "mas cute naman ako sa kanya"
"May kasabay ka?" means… "nood tayo ng sine & kain sa labas"
"Thank you sa gift ha" means… "Ang cheap mo naman"

GUIDE QUESTIONS
What does Richards say about the relationship between thoughts, symbols, and referents? Using ‘chalk talk,’ go to the board and explain in your own words Richards’ semantic triangle that shows how these three elements work together to create meaning whenever people communicate.
Reference - is a ‘thought’ or set of external and psychological contexts linking a mental

process to a referent or ‘thing.’ This ‘thought’ is based on a person’s past
experiences with a ‘thing’ and the symbols s/he uses to represent the
experience.
Symbols - are arrangements of words, images, gestures, drawings or mimetic sounds
Referent - is a ‘thing,’ ‘object,’ or ‘entity’
Give one example illustrating that there is no natural connection between any symbol and the thing it represents.
Give one example about how a symbol can mean different things to different people.
Give one example showing how ‘past’ and ‘present’ experiences play an important role in the creation of meaning.
What are Richards’ three most important contributions to the field of communication study?

He pushed for ‘everyday’ communication (and not public speech) to be the unit of analysis.
He clarified how ‘words’ derive their meaning.
He used social scientific language and concepts to explain his theory.
Sixth Article: "The Meaning of Meaning"
http://www/aforst;ppl.cp,/archive/mean.cfm?source=archter
Why did Richards not like the old rhetoric?
- because it was a ‘sales-talk’ that focused exclusively on the art or oratory.
- because it focused too much on persuasion than on comprehension.
Give a concrete example of what you think is the difference between information loss in a conversation that is caused by ‘channel noise’ and one that is caused by the ‘nature of the language.’
¯ Static in a telephone VERSUS misunderstanding (as a result of linguistic and socio-cultural knowledge)

STUDY: When a cargo handler who had chosen meat was asked whether he wanted
gravy, a British waiter would say ‘Gravy?’ using rising intonation. The Indian waiters, on the other hand, would say the word using falling intonation: ‘Gravy.’
Some researchers taped relevant sequences like these and asked the employees to paraphrase what was meant in each case. At first the Indian waiters saw no difference.
However, the English teacher and the cafeteria supervisor pointed out tat ‘Gravy,’ said with a falling intonation, is likely to be interpreted as, ‘This is gravy,’ - not interpreted as an offer but rather as a statement, which in the context seems rather rude.
That was when the Indian waiters finally understood the negative reactions they had been getting all the time which had until then seemed incomprehensible.
Even when communicators have the same background, it is not uncommon for them to leave an interaction thinking they have understood each other but in reality they have not.
Why?
¯ Because two speakers whose sentences are quite grammatical can differ radically in their interpretation of each other’s sentences.
EXAMPLE: agreeing on a time to meet
What is the difference between a ‘sign’ and a ‘symbol’? Cite your own examples.
¯ SIGN - something we directly encounter
Examples: lightning = thunder, punch = anger, tears = sadness, laughter = happiness, etc.
¯ SYMBOL - have no natural connection with the things they describe
Example: the word "f l a g" = w
Prepare three different sentences to show how the same word changes its meaning depending on the context that it is used.
Stick

You have to stick the picture on the page.
The dog brings back the stick to its owner.
Would you like to have a stick of gum?

What do these examples tell us about the meaning of words?
How does Richards describe ‘context’?
¯A context is not just a sentence or a situation in which the word is spoken. A context is the whole field of experience that can be connected with an event - including thoughts of similar events.
Brenda wanted to know, "When a guy says, ‘I love you,’ but wants me to ‘prove’ my affection physically, does he really love me?" In response, her teacher asked her, "What do you mean when you use the word love?" Why do you think is this an appropriate response?
¯ Meanings don’t reside in words; they reside in people
Explain how Brenda came to the conclusion that there was a big contrast between the love of her parents and the love of her boyfriend.
¯ She thought of situations that showed how she understood love

walking hand in hand on an empty beach
hugging a cuddly kitten
giving a blanket to a homeless person on the street
her future husband changing their yet-to-be-conceived baby’s diaper
Prepare two different pictures of one kind of ‘thing’ (e.g., animal, person, idea, event, etc.) and paste them on a Manila Paper. Explain the link between the ‘word’ that is used to call this ‘thing’ and the actual ‘thing/s’ that the word represents to different persons.
Richards suggested what linguistic ways will make people have a greater region of shared experiences to avoid talking past each other? Explain each linguistic aspect.

Definition - What ‘other words’ explain ‘my idea’ of the ‘thing’?

Symbolization - Love is a couple getting married.
Similarity - Love is like a lifetime commitment.
Spatial relations - Love is sexual intercourse, nothing more, nothing less.
Temporal relations - Individuals can only love others only after they like themselves.
Causation - Love leads to self-sacrifice.
Object of a mental state - Love is desiring the best for another person.
Legal relations - Love is when a couple enters into a joint property agreement.
Metaphor - What other more familiar ‘word’ can I compare this ‘word’ with?
Feedforward - Does s/he understand what I mean with this ‘word’?
Basic English - What ‘common word’ should I use?
"Meanings change as fast as people change." Give an example of a word which past and present meanings are entirely different.
¯ EXAMPLES: ‘gay’; ‘mouse’; ‘text’; etc…
"If words have no intrinsic meaning, it seems perfectly reasonable to express an idea by stringing together four or five common words instead of relying on a single esoteric term that can easily be misinterpreted." Think of a good example to illustrate this concept.
¯ EXAMPLES:
1. Let’s vote h Let’s choose someone to be our leader.
2. I’m anxious h I am afraid to speak in front because maybe I will make a mistake and
everyone will laugh at me.
3. You disgust me h Your bad table manners are not nice

Assignment: (1 whole yellow paper)
Write a composition of 20-25 sentences. Answer the question: "Are 850 words enough to represent all the ideas and opinions in a person’s mind?"

Answers:

YES

NO

- what’s the use of a wide vocabulary if other people can’t understand your ‘difficult’ words? - what’s the use of having a wide vocabulary, if we use it only once in a blue moon? - difficult words are understood by a few and the goal of communicating is to be understood by the general public so it’s better to stick to 850 simple words than 5,000 complex words - slight differences in meanings can be overlooked as long as the communicators’ get the gist of their thoughts. Foreigners learning English as a second language can go a long way with just 850 words - another example is that babies and lovers can communicate without saying many words. They use body language. - keep it short and simple and stick to the basics to avoid confusion because words have no intrinsic meaning. People create the meanings of words based on their past experiences - the bottomline is that we just need the creativity to play with words and a simple knowledge of grammar.

- the synonyms of words do not mean the same thing. One cannot substitute "lonely" for "sad" because they are different. - the words we use often use depend on the subject of discussion. Complex topics in science need more words than talking about "hairstyles" for instance. - the profession one has also influences the extent of ones vocabulary and vice versa. A doctor’s terms are varied and complex compared to a janitor’s simple vocabulary. - a vocabulary 850 words can also result to redundancy. Instead of using another word, you’re stuck with using the same word over and over again. That’s dull and boring. - words can be interpreted differently, so we have to be exact as possible to really find the right words that will show what we mean. This requires a wider vocabulary. - language changes all the time, we have to keep up by constantly learning new words. - the exchange of ideas and the expressing of feelings becomes limited if we lack the linguistic capacity. - what’s the use of a dictionary and linguistics if we stick to just 850 words?
Question: What is the height of globalization?
Answer: Princess Diana’s Death
Question: How come?
Answer: An English Princess with an Egyptian boyfriend crashes in a French tunnel, driving a German car with a Dutch engine, driven by a Belgian who was high on Scottish whiskey, followed closely be Italian Paparazzi, on Japanese motorcycles, treated by an American doctor, using Brazilian medicines! And this is sent to you by a Filipino, using Bill Gates’ technology which he stole from the Japanese. And you are probably reading this on one of the IBM clones that use Philippine-made chips, and Korean made monitors, assembled by Bangladeshi worders in a Singapore plant, transported by lorries driven by Indians, hijacked by Indonesians and finally sold to you by a Chinese!
That’s GLOBALIZATION!!!
Seventh Article: John Searle’s Theory of Speech Acts (missing page)
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp. 118-120)
1. What is a ‘speech act’?
2. What are some of the characteristics of a ‘speech act’?
3. What are the 4 kinds of ‘speech acts’?
4. "Speaking a language is engaging in a rule-governed behavior." What are the 2 types of rules in speaking?
5. Any illocutionary act must have the basic kinds of rules. What are they? Explain.
6. Give one example of an indirect speech act.
7. What are the 5 types of illocutionary acts?
Eight Article: Aristotle’s Rhetoric
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
(pp. 79-83)
8. Why is Aristotle such an important figure in communication?
9. How does Aristotle differentiate between rhetoric and dialectic?
10. According to Aristotle, what is the essence of rhetoric?
11. According to Aristotle, why is rhetoric valuable?
12. How does Aristotle differentiate between two kinds of proofs?
13. According to Aristotle, what are the 3 kinds of artistic PROOFS OF PERSUASION?
14. According to Aristotle, what are the 2 types of rational argument?
15. Give examples of an inductive argument and a deductive argument.
16. According to Aristotle, what are the 3 kinds of rhetoric corresponding to the 3 types of audiences to which speeches are addressed?
17. According to Aristotle, why is it important that a speaker gives the right impression of himself/herself?
18. Why do you think does Aristotle define emotions in regard to the circumstances under which they are felt?
19. Give an example of how a person’s age, wealth, or power contribute to one’s credibility.
20. According to Aristotle, what are the major canons of rhetoric?
21. Read one or two lines of a catchy poem, a joke, etc.. Illustrate the importance of the ‘art of delivery’ by varying your voice - its volume, pitch, or rhythm.
22. According to Aristotle, what should one do to improve style and delivery?
23. According to Aristotle, what are the parts of speech?
Ninth Article: Kenneth Burke
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
(pp. 111-114)
AND
Tenth Article: Dramatism
"Communication theories: perspectives, processes, and contexts" by Miller, Katherine
(pp. 88-92)
24. Give an example of what Burke means by, "Humans have the ability to symbolize about symbols."
25. Explain in your own words how Burke defines us HUMANS
26. How does Burke explain what RHETORIC is?
27. Explain what Burke means by IDENTIFICATION.
28. Explain what Burke means by DRAMATISM.
29. What do you think Burke means by, "Humans are capable of both action and motion."
30. What is the PENTAD?
31. "The problem of agency is the problem of finding a way of accounting for human experience which recognizes simultaneously and in equal measure that history and society are made by constant and more or less purposeful individual action and that individual action however purposeful, is made by history and society." Explain this in simpler words.
32. "Analysis via the dramatistic pentad goes beyond a simplistic labeling of the various portions of the dramatic event and involves a consideration of what aspects of the event were put in the foreground and which were relegated to the background." Give an example.
33. Explain this in your own words: "Language works as a terministic screen, shaping and filtering our perceptions of reality by emphasizing various aspects of social life."
34. So, what then can we say are Burke’s most important contributions to communication?
*FOURTH SESSION: June 24, 2004 (lecture 5, 6 and 7)
QUIZ!!!
Test I.- 555 What is a ‘speech act’?
Test II.- 555 According to Aristotle, why is rhetoric valuable?
VERBAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES (Continuation)
Seventh Article: John Searle’s Theory of Speech Acts
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp. 118-120)
What is a ‘speech act’?
4It is a ‘sentence,’ a ‘phrase’ or a ‘word’ that is the basic unit of language for expressing meaning - e.g., an ‘intention.’
4When one speaks, one performs an act Ô stating, questioning, commanding, promising, etc.
4SPEECH is therefore an intentional behavior.
What are some of the characteristics of a ‘speech act’?
4The recipient should understand the speaker’s intention.
4Unlike the representational view of meaning, the speech act theory does not stress the
individual referents of symbols but the intent of the act as a whole.
For example: If you are making a promise, you are communicating an intention that you will
do in the future. But more importantly, you are expecting the person you are
speaking with to realize from what you have said what your intention is.
What are the 4 kinds of ‘speech acts’?

utterance act
h refers to the pronunciation of words (alone or in groups)
h the intention is to utter, nothing more

propositional act
h refers to uttering a sentence with the intention of expressing a reference
h ex: making an association between the subject and verb = ‘she is talking’
h are evaluated in terms of their truth value. But in a speech act theory, truth and logic are
not important. Instead, what the person intends to do by uttering a proposition is important.

illocutionary act
h refers to fulfilling an intention vis-à-vis another person
h the intention is to elicit a response
h the speaker’s primary concern is for the listener to understand his/her intention

perlocutionary act
h refers to an act that aims to affect other people’s behavior
h the speaker’s primary concern is for the listener to understand his/her intention and do
something about it

A proposition is evaluated in terms of its truth value.
But in a speech act theory, truth and logic are not important. Instead, what the person intends to do by uttering a proposition is important.
The meaning of an illocutionary act is determined in part by establishing how the speaker wishes others to take the stated proposition. That is why propositions should always be viewed in a larger context - the illocution.
"Speaking a language is engaging in a rule-governed behavior." What are the 2 types of rules in speaking?

CONSTITUTIVE rules
- create new forms of behavior
- acts are created by the establishment of rules which tell you what to interpret as basketball
- example: you know that a group of people are playing basketball if they are following the
rules of basketball
- other sports: kickboxing, ju-ji-tsu, aikido, taekwondo, etc.

REGULATIVE rules
- provide guidelines for acting out already established behavior
- the behaviors are known before being used in the act
- these rules tell one how to use these behaviors to accomplish a particular intention
- example: a host opens the door for a guest who is leaving
- rituals: wedding, at a wake, reciting in class, giving a speech, greeting grandparents, etc.
(To elaborate constitutive rules, see below for an extended analysis of a speech act:)
Any illocutionary act must have the basic kinds of rules. What are they? Explain.
EXAMPLE: ‘PROMISING’ involves 5 basic rules.

The sentence indicates that the speaker will perform some future action.
(propositional content rule = specifies some condition)

The sentence is uttered only if the listener wants the speaker do the ‘promise.’
(preparatory rule = specifies the presumed preconditions in the speaker and listener)

The speaker and listener know that this ‘promise’ is done in the normal course of events. (preparatory rule = same as in #2 m)
The speaker really intends to fulfill the ‘promise.’
(sincerity rule = the speaker really has the intention to do the act)

The speaker is obliged to do the ‘promise.’
(essential rule = the act is taken by the speaker and listener to represent what it appears to
be on the face)
EXAMPLE é It’s a Sunday and the girl is waiting at home to be picked up by the boy. After 1 hour of waiting, the girl become fuming mad but finally her boyfriend arrives. The girl composes herself and gives her monthsary gift to her boyfriend. The thing is, he has forgotten all about it and did not prepare his usual three white roses for his girlfriend. (Abangan and susunod na kabanata…)

*Many acts are not successful in these ways. Speech acts can be evaluated in terms of the degree to which they meet these criteria.
*Felicity - is a defective act.
*Direct speech act - there is an explicit proposition that clearly states the intention.
*Indirect speech act - there is no explicit proposition that clearly states the intention.
Give one example of an indirect speech act.
What are the 5 types of illocutionary acts?
1. Assertives h are statements of propositions that commit the speaker to advocate the truth of
the propositions. In direct form such acts might contain verbs like: state, affirm,
conclude, believe, etc.
2. Directives h are illocutions that attempt to get the listener to do something: commands,
requests, pleadings, prayers, entreaties, invitations, etc.
3. Commisives h commit the speaker to a future act: promising, vowing, pledging, contracting,
and guaranteeing
4. Expressives h are acts that show the speaker’s psychological state: thanking, congratulating,
apologizing, condoling, welcoming, etc.
5. Declaration h are propositions: appointing, marrying, firing, resigning, etc.
*FIFTH & SIXTH SESSIONS: June 29 & July 1, 2004 (lecture 8)
Eight Article: Aristotle’s Rhetoric
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
(pp. 79-83)
Why is Aristotle such an important figure in communication?

- He was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira, a Greek colony.
- At 17, he entered Plato’s school called The Academy.
- His work is the very foundation of speech communication
- It includes topics on nearly every area of human inquiry: logic, philosophy of science,
biology, meteorology, memory, sleep, dreams, sensation, metaphysics, politics,
economics, ethics, poetry, and of course rhetoric
- His book, ‘Rhetoric’ is the first systematic treatment of the art of public speaking.
BOOK I OF ARISTOTLE’S ‘RHETORIC’
How does Aristotle differentiate between rhetoric and dialectic?
4rhetoric (the art of public speaking) is the counterpart of dialectic (the art of logical discussion, e.g., Plato’s method of finding truth)
According to Aristotle, what is the essence of rhetoric?
4arguments
According to Aristotle, why is rhetoric valuable?

- it prevents injustice and fraud by advancing the truth
- it is a way of teaching through using logic
- it is a way of defending oneself
How does Aristotle differentiate between two kinds of proofs?
4artistic (scientific) - it is created by the speaker
4nonartistic (unscientific) - is outside the realm of the rhetorician: inclds. witnesses, admissions
- it is ‘used’ by the speaker
ARTISTIC Ý example: In ‘La Amistad,’ the defendant invoked the constitution of America to
appeal to the jury’s sense of equality and justice.
NONARTISTIC Ý example: In the Vizconde Massacre testimonials, Jessica Alfaro implicated
Hubert Webb eventhough documents showed that the accused was in
America at the time of the killing.

According to Aristotle, what are the 3 kinds of artistic PROOFS OF PERSUASION?
4ethos - the character of the speaker or ‘credibility’
- this is because of a person’s intelligence, virtue and good will
- this is created by the speech
4pathos - the right attitude in the hearer or the ‘emotional appeals’ like humor and warmth
- this is created by speech
4logos - the proper argument or ‘logical appeals’

- refers to the type of rational argument the speaker presents to the audience
According to Aristotle, what are the 2 types of rational argument?

argument by example or to argue ‘inductively’ h e.g., from specific to general
enthymeme or to argue ‘deductively’ h e.g., from general to specific
Give examples of an inductive argument and a deductive argument.
According to Aristotle, what are the 3 kinds of rhetoric corresponding to the 3 types of audiences to which speeches are addressed?

Deliberative h refers to political speeches addressed to a legislative body or a political ruler
h response: "What can we do?"

Forensic h refers to judicial speeches used in prosecution and defense cases where a jury is

the audience
h response: "Yes, that’s right." or "No, that’s wrong."

Epideictic h refers to ceremonial speeches like declamation wherein the speaker praises or
blames someone else for the benefit of the audience.
h response: "We dis/agree."

banana and pineapple plantations are affecting the watersheds of Davao City
guilt/innocence of someone accused of rape or murder
commencement speech of a valectorian that praises the Jesuits
BOOK II OF ARISTOTLE’S ‘RHETORIC’
According to Aristotle, why is it important that a speaker gives the right impression of himself/herself?
Ü The audience judges the counsels that are given.
Why do you think does Aristotle define emotions in regard to the circumstances under which they are felt?
Ü If you want people to ‘feel with you,’ you should be able to create a desired ‘emotion’ in your listeners as a result of your speech. It is therefore important to know toward whom these emotions are felt and what are the causes of these emotions.
Give an example of how a person’s age, wealth, or power contribute to one’s credibility.
BOOK III OF ARISTOTLE’S ‘RHETORIC’
According to Aristotle, what are the major canons of rhetoric?
â invention (discovery of ideas)
â organization (arrangement of ideas)
â elocution (way of speaking)
â delivery (how the speech is presented)
Read one or two lines of a catchy poem, a joke, etc.. Illustrate the importance of the ‘art of delivery’ by varying your voice - its volume, pitch, or rhythm.
BLACK OR WHITE
Bakit kaya takot ang Pinoy sa sun?
At why is it Westeners go sunbathing,
Nakahiga sa beach na nakahubad?
Humans are crazy people,
Never contented with the color of their skin…
Kung iisipin natin,
There is no such thing as a black or white person.
Have you ever seen someone as puti as this piece of paper?
Have you ever seen someone as itim as the ink I’m using?
Rosa born kayumanggi wants to be pale
Everyday she puts whitening lotion, whitening soap and lots of pulbos
Kate born pale goes to Boracay to get a tan
Humans are crazy people,
Never contented with the color of their skin…
According to Aristotle, what should one do to improve style and delivery?
â correct usage of words
â clear words (not vague or ambiguous)
â attention to gender
â attention to singular and plural
â describe the object
â use metaphors
â use negatives
According to Aristotle, what are the parts of speech?
â a proem (introduction) - it clarifies the purpose of the speech
â a statement (of the case)
â an argument (support for the case)
â an epilogue (conclusion)

- makes the audience well-disposed to the speaker
- points out the strengths of the speaker’s arguments and the weaknesses of the opposition
putting the audience in the right frame of mind
- refreshing the audience’s memories
Assignment: Argue this case in 20-25 sentences: "Women (should/shouldn’t) be allowed to become priests." You can be for it or against it. Just be as convincing as possible. Use the four parts of speech: introduction, statement, argument/s and an epilogue.

YES

NO

- Jesus lived in a patriarchal society where women were looked down as inferior to men. Women had to stay at home and mind the household chores. Today it’s different. Professionally, females have the capacity to do what men can do - be a doctor, a driver, a family’s breadwinner, even a politician. Therefore, even in religion, women should be able to do what men normally do. And why not? Times are changing and we should adjust to the new pace of life and not stick to our old and backward traditions that stereotype men and women. - It is the spiritual maturity, (strong faith and sincerity, and a dedication to serve) that makes a person worthy of being a priest. The basis should not be the sex or the physical strength. Otherwise, that would be sexist and unfair. - Women are more sensitive and caring than men. Therefore, they would make excellent priests and approach this vacation with more depth. - The Bible doesn’t say that one should be a man in order to be a priest. In fact, "man" in the Bible refers to both "men" and women." - What’s wrong with men becoming priests when in other religions - Protestant, Baptist, etc. - it’s okay? - In the early days of the Church, there were women priests! So, why not now? - Women are also qualified to forgive sins, give sacraments, hold liturgical services and preach the word of God. These are not tasks that should be exclusive to men. - Besides, with the priest population dwindling, it is only practical to have women priests.

- The Bible says so and the bible is the truth! For instance, it says that ‘women should be submissive to their husbands.’ Also, the Bible says that ‘if women have any questions to ask, let them ask their husbands at home, for it is improper for them to speak in Church meetings.’ - Jesus is a man! His apostles were men! And the Pope is also a man! Why men? Because God appointed them, not women! - In the creation story in Genesis, Adam was created first and then Eve. This proves that males are superior to females. - Priests are the ‘bridegrooms’ and the Church is their bride. So, if women become priests, they can’t be the bridegrooms too. Women, by virtue of being women, cannot equally represent Jesus Christ who is a man. - Besides, if women become priests, then the male priests would be tempted to have sexual relationships with them. - And what if the women priests have children? They wouldn’t be able to concentrate well on being a priest! - Also, women have their regular periods and are therefore ‘unclean’ according to Leviticus. - Moreover, men should be priests and not women because men are not so emotional and fickle-minded. Men are also more focused, and strong. - In addition, women are more materialistic than men. They wouldn’t be able to follow the vow of poverty. - More importantly, we humans respect men more than women. Most of us wouldn’t think much of a woman doing a sermon and therefore we would not want to be part of a woman-priest’s ‘flock.’ - The point is that women shouldn’t become priests because tradition shows that ever since the beginning, the priesthood has been male-dominated. It should stay that way. - If not, there will be chaos and shock if a woman with a sexy body and big breasts does the Eucharist for instance. - The bottomline is that no matter how hard we argue, the Vatican has declared the case closed.
*SEVENTH & EIGHT SESSIONS: July 6 & 8, 2004 (lecture 9 and 10)
Ninth Article: Kenneth Burke
"Human Communication Theory: Applications and Case Studies" by Neuliep, James William
(pp. 111-114)
AND
Tenth Article: Dramatism
"Communication theories: perspectives, processes, and contexts" by Miller, Katherine
(pp. 88-92)
QUIZ!
Test I.- What does Burke mean by ‘identification’?
Test II.- How does language work as a terministic screen?
Give an example of what Burke means by, "Humans have the ability to symbolize about symbols."
4For example, the idea of ‘no’ or ‘not’ is purely symbolic because it cannot exist in
nature. The absence of a tree or dog is an idea that can only exist symbolically.
Explain in your own words how Burke defines us HUMANS
"Humans are the symbol-using animal inventors of the negative separated
from their natural condition by instruments of their own making goaded by the
spirit of hierarchy and rotten with perfection."
4This poem points to several important nuances regarding the ability of humans to engage in
symbolic actions.
h with language we become separated from the natural state of the world (e.g., the world
of motion) but we can still be reflexive and comment on that world
h though we are symbol using, we are also still animals - meaning, some of that we do is
motivated by animality and some of it by symbolicity.
h with language we introduce the concept of the negative
h with language we also introduce the notion of hierarchy - e.g., the symbolic and social
structuring of the world into various forms of order.

h with language we introduce ideals and concepts of perfection that humans can never
actually attain.
How does Burke explain what RHETORIC is?
4It is the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by
nature respond to symbols. It is a process of persuasion.
BUT, rhetoric is not merely a logical process of persuasion through the presentation of reasons and evidence. Rather, rhetoric is a process of creating, re-creating, and drawing on identification.
Explain what Burke means by IDENTIFICATION.
4It refers to those things people have in common with other people - e.g., physical
objects, occupations, friends, attitudes, beliefs, and values.
4This is the motive of rhetoric - e.g., people aim to bridge their natural division.
4"Identification acknowledges that communication is difficult because humans have

different experiences and because ambiguity allows each of us to hold different
meanings of terms."

To summarize, Burke says that rhetoric go beyond the deliberate, intentional public speech.
4In identifying with others, people communicate intentionally, unintentionally, verbally,
and non-verbally. There is subtle, unconscious identification.
Examples:
- an immigrant seeks to fit in a new country and changes his/her dress and speech
- a politician seeks voter support by eating in fiesta’s
4Identification is accomplished in a variety of contexts: public speech, sales, education,
works of art, literature, and painting.
Examples:

- The speaker identifies with the audience
- The salesperson identifies with the buyer
- The teacher identifies with the students
Explain what Burke means by DRAMATISM.
4Life is not like drama. Life is drama.
4The drama of life is motivated by guilt.
4Guilt is a way to refer to a variety of negative processes - anxiety, embarrassment,
shame, disgust - that permeate the human condition. It comes when we are estranged
from the natural world or when we are estranged from others in the social world.
4To purge our guilt, people engage in victimage - e.g., sacrifice someone (Example?)
h mortification = self-victimage
h scapegoating = blame is placed on someone else
4The result of victimage is redemption - e.g., a return to a new order after the guilt is
removed.

4However, redemption is short lived because the social world inherently involves guilt
that will begin a new cycle.
What do you think Burke means by, "Humans are capable of both action and motion."
4ACTION h Refers to the voluntary goal-driven symbol-using behavior.
4MOTION h Refers to simple reflexes or reactions to external stimuli.
h The distinction between motion and action is what makes humans distinct from other animals
h the move from motion to action marks humans as agents rather than reactors.
h symbols - e.g., language - moves humans from the realm of motion into the realm of action
What is the PENTAD?
4It is a tool to help understand the rhetorical action of people who want to identify with
others.
4It represents 5 ways to analyze a communication event in order to fully understand
rhetorical motive.

1.) ACT h is what is done by a speaker - e.g., a speech, a commercial, a love letter, or a political rally.
2.) SCENE h is the situation or context surrounding the act - e.g., the
historical, economic, political and social factors.
3.) AGENT h is a person or people performing the act.
4.) AGENCY h is the means/methods to perform the act - e.g., symbols
5.) PURPOSE h is the explicit/implicit goal of the act - e.g., identification
or persuasion
The 5 elements of the pentad operate interdependently in a "pentadic ratio." Examples:

1. Scene-ratio act = the scene contains the act, therefore the act should be consistent with the scene
+ EDSA II and protest/prayer rallies; GMA and her
2. Agency-purpose = how the means to perform the act are influenced by the purpose
+ love letter to show love; pictures to show the cruelties of war
3. Act-agent = the symbols create the identity of the symbol user
+ GMA spoke Tag-lish and wore a recycled dress at her inauguration
"Analysis via the dramatistic pentad goes beyond a simplistic labeling of the various portions of the dramatic event and involves a consideration of what aspects of the event were put in the foreground and which were relegated to the background." Give examples:

1. Cebu Pacific plane crash in Samal City
(Cebu Pacific President and Boeing manufacturer)
2. The Floods in Cotabato City
(DENR and Gov. Manny Pinol)
3. GMA’s inaugural speech
(opinion columnists)
"The problem of agency is the problem of finding a way of accounting for human experience which recognizes simultaneously and in equal measure that history and society are made by
constant and more or less purposeful individual action and that individual action however
purposeful, is made by history and society." Explain these in simpler words:

1. Jose Rizal
2. Nursing boom in the Philippines
3. Osama Bin Laden
4. AIDS breakout
Explain this in your own words: "Language works as a terministic screen, shaping and filtering our perceptions of reality by emphasizing various aspects of social life."
So, what then can we say are Burke’s most important contributions to communication?
4Analysis of the guilt and redemption cycle and use of the dramatistic pentad - enhance our understanding of rhetorical texts
*NINTH & TENTH SESSIONS: July 13 & 15, 2004 (public speaking)
INSTRUCTIONS: You will be given 3-5 minutes to inductively/deductively argue one case. You can choose to support the case or be against it. Remember, the trick is to give convincing arguments. Be very clear in your explanation of your stand.

1. Priests should be allowed to marry
2. Single parenthood affects a child’s well-being
3. Globalization is nice but it can cause a lot of harm
4. Smoking is a sign of weakness
5. Divorce should be legalized
6. Overseas contract workers ruin a country
7. Women and men today are still not equal
8. To stop the population boom, couples should only be allowed one child
9. Atheists are bad

Cellphones have more disadvantages than advantages
The death sentence minimizes crimes
12. Pre-marital sex is okay
13. Existence ceases at death

Abortion should be legalized
Heaven and hell are just figments of the imagination
Intelligence is inherited, not learned
Rapists and murderers should be killed
Reason shows that there is really no God
Same-sex marriages are not immoral
Money is the root of all evil
God has no gender
Prostitution should be legalized
Honesty is really the best policy
24. Appearances are deceiving most of the time

Fossils were put on earth to test our faith in creation
Poverty is a sign of laziness
Marijuana should be legalized
Passivity is a crime that kills
Humans are the most dangerous animals
29. Cheating in class is inevitable
30. Religion is the opium of the masses

GMO is the solution to world hunger
Euthanasia should be legalized
Beauty contests degrade women
Students should not have romantic relationships
Television makes kids dumb
One’s personality is shaped by the environment, not the genes
There is nothing wrong with putting old parents in a home for the aged
38. Success is not always a good thing
39. Animals aren’t as dumb as you think they are
40. Happiness is fleeting
AN INTERESTING CONVERSATION

An atheist professor of philosophy speaks to his class on the problem science has with God, The Almighty. He asks one of his new Christian students to stand and.....

Professor: You are a Christian, aren't you, son?
Student: Yes, sir.
Prof: So you believe in God?
Student: Absolutely, sir.
Prof: Is God good?
Student: Sure.
Prof: Is God all-powerful?
Student: Yes.
Prof: My brother died of cancer even though he prayed to God to heal him. Most of us would attempt to help others who are ill. But God didn't. How is this God good then? Hmm?
(Student is silent.)
Prof: You can't answer, can you? Let's start again, young fella. Is God good?
Student: Yes.
Prof: Is Satan good?
Student: No.
Prof: Where does Satan come from?
Student: From...God...
Prof: That's right. Tell me son, is there evil in this world?
Student: Yes.
Prof: Evil is everywhere, isn't it? And God did make everything. Correct?
Student: Yes.
Prof: So who created evil?
(Student does not answer.)
Prof: Is there sickness? Immorality? Hatred? Ugliness? All these terrible things exist in the world, don't they?
Student: Yes, sir.
Prof: So, who created them?
(Student has no answer.)
Prof: Science says you have 5 senses you use to identify and observe the world around you. Tell me, son...Have you ever seen God?
Student: No, sir.
Prof: Tell us if you have ever heard your God?
Student: No, sir.
Prof: Have you ever felt your God, tasted your God, smelt your God? Have you ever had any sensory perception of God for that matter?
Student: No, sir. I'm afraid I haven't.
Prof: Yet you still believe in Him?
Student: Yes.
Prof: According to empirical, testable, demonstrable protocol, science says your GOD doesn't exist. What do you say to that, son?
Student: Nothing. I only have my faith.
Prof: Yes. Faith. And that is the problem science has.
Student: Professor, is there such a thing as heat?
Prof: Yes.
Student: And is there such a thing as cold?
Prof: Yes.
Student: No sir. There isn't.
(The lecture theatre becomes very quiet with this turn of events.)
Student: Sir, you can have lots of heat, even more heat, superheat, mega heat, white heat, a little heat or no heat. But we don't have anything called cold. We can hit 458 degrees below zero which is no heat,
but we can't go any further after that. There is no such thing as cold. Cold is only a word we use to describe the absence of heat. We cannot measure cold. Heat is energy. Cold is not the opposite of heat, sir, just the absence of it.
(There is pin-drop silence in the lecture theatre.)
Student: What about darkness, Professor? Is there such a thing as darkness?
Prof: Yes. What is night if there isn't darkness?
Student: You're wrong again, sir. Darkness is the absence of something. You can have low light, normal light, bright light, flashing light....But if you have no light constantly, you have nothing and it's called darkness, isn't it? In reality, darkness isn't. If it were you would be able to make darkness darker, wouldn't you?
Prof: So what is the point you are making, young man?
Student: Sir, my point is your philosophical premise is flawed.
Prof: Flawed? Can you explain how?
Student: Sir, you are working on the premise of duality. You argue there is life and then there is death, a good God and a bad God. You are viewing the concept of God as something finite, something we can measure. Sir, science can't even explain a thought. It uses electricity and magnetism, but has never seen, much less fully understood either one. To view death as the opposite of life is to be ignorant of the fact
that death cannot exist as a substantive thing. Death is not the opposite of life: just the absence of it. Now tell me, Professor. Do you teach your students that they evolved from a monkey?
Prof: If you are referring to the natural evolutionary process, yes, of course, I do
Student: Have you ever observed evolution with your own eyes, sir?
(The Professor shakes his head with a smile, beginning to realize where the argument is going.)
Student: Since no one has ever observed the process of evolution at work and cannot even prove that this process is an on-going endeavor, are you not teaching your opinion, sir? Are you not a scientist
but a preacher?
(The class is in uproar.)
Student: Is there anyone in the class who has ever seen the Professor's brain?
(The class breaks out into laughter.)
Student: Is there anyone here who has ever heard the Professor's brain, felt it, touched or smelt it?.....
No one appears to have done so. So, according to the established rules of empirical, stable, demonstrable protocol, science says that you have no brain, sir. With all due respect, sir, how do we then trust your
lectures, sir?
(The room is silent. The professor stares at the student, his face unfathomable.)
Prof: I guess you'll have to take them on faith, son.
Student: That is it sir.. The link between man & god is FAITH. That is all that keeps things moving & alive.
*ELEVENTH SESSION: July 20 & July 22 (lecture 11, 12 & 13)
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES
ASSIGNMENTS:
(1.) Eleventh Article:
"Communication Studies: The Essential Introduction" by Beck, Andrew (pp. 150-164)
(2.) Twelfth Article:
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp.61-66)
(3.) Thirteenth Article: Proxemic Theory of Edward Hall
http://www.afirstlook.com/main.htm (Theory Archives)

NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES
Eleventh Article:
"Communication Studies: The Essential Introduction" by Beck, Andrew (pp. 150-164)
Communication Studies: The Essential Introduction/ Ateneo Library Entry 302.2/B393
` Verbal behavior is an important way in which we communicate with one another. And when we
communicate we are offering data to the world. In the process of doing so, we offer information
about ourselves, our feelings and attitudes and our relationship to the people we are addressing.
However, when we communicate, we also use a lot of non-verbal behavior.
` What is data?
It is raw, unprocessed facts, figures, etc.
` What is information?
It is processed data.
EXAMPLE: The fact that you are 17 is a piece of data, as far as you are concerned. But should a police
officer ask your age, and you reply ’17,’ that is information to him. This is because he is
asking your age for a specific purpose.
` How can a simple greeting such as ‘How ya doing?’ or ‘Wassup?’ carry with it much more about the
person talking?
Õ The additional information is transmitted through non-verbal channels. Our tone of voice, the
look on our face, or even the way in which we position our body can reveal to the receiver of
our message our feelings as we transmit the message. We can say one thing and mean the
exact opposite like when we are sarcastic or ironic.
` So, what are the non-verbal signals that people transmit?

Proxemics
Orientation
Eye contact or gaze
Facial expression
Gesture, especially use of hands and arms
Dress
Posture
Paralanguage
Others: skin color (when embarrassed) smell (to attract/repel)
I.- PROXEMICS - is how we handle the space around us, especially in relation to other people.

Humans, like all animals, are territorial. Give one example showing that humans are territorial.
4 riding in a bus/elevator with a stranger/with a crowd
4 placing a "don’t enter" on your room’s door knob
4 placing your name on your desk in the faculty lounge
4 decorating your office space to mark it off from your colleagues’ spaces
2. How does the way that a space is occupied, show the power relations within groups of people?
Ô The more powerful a person is, the bigger is the space that s/he occupies.
3. Give an example of a situation wherein the more powerful a person is, the larger and more
impressive the pace that s/he occupies is.
4 a beggar on the street and a business executive in posh ladislawa
4 a landowner and a tenant
4 the seating arrangement along the table prioritizes the matriarch/patriarch of the family
4 the seating arrangement on the couch when watching a movie prioritizes the kuya or ate
4 the boss in a bank vs. the security guards
4 a speaker who moves forward or even mingles with the audience when speaking

How is the teacher’s space marked out?
5. How are the other spaces occupied?
6. Where would a newcomer or visitor to the class sit?
II.- ORIENTATION - is the way in which people place themselves relative to one another.

Does sitting at a table create a relaxed atmosphere and encourage conversation more than eating off
a tray?
2. Do we trust people more if they sit in certain position in relation to us?
Ô Sitting beside a person illustrates closeness and support, sitting in front of him or her is more
confrontational.
3. Why do we feel uncomfortable when people stand behind us?

4. How do we know from the way a boy or girl likes you from the way s/he places himself or herself in
relation to you?

Sometimes we feel uncomfortable when someone enters our individual invisible space. But
sometimes we welcome it. On what do you think does this depend?
Ô It depends on the situation (its ‘cultural’ - e.g., in some countries, touching when speaking is
okay, in other countries not)
Ô It depends on the relationship we have (e.g., best friend, acquaintance, mother, girl/boyfriend, etc.)
Ô It depends on the relationship we would like to have (e.g., when a stranger becomes a friend)
III.- EYE CONTACT - This is ‘looking,’ ‘watching,’ ‘staring,’ etc. at someone. It is using the eyes to
communicate.

Why do you think is it rude to stare at someone?
Ô We need to make initial eye contact to assess a stranger but prolonged staring is a threatening form of
behavior in the animal world.

When do you think is gazing acceptable?
4 When lovers gaze to show their closeness.
4 When you gaze at your idol because you admire him/her

What have you observed happens when you stare at someone?
Ô The person’s behavior changes. S/he either becomes defensive or extremely aggressive towards you.

Why do you think do we avoid someone’s gaze?
Ô It is a means of avoiding conflict.
Ô It can also mean that we may be hiding something and not telling the whole truth.

What is the significance of looking away from someone? What signals are being passed when people
glance away like this?
6. How do you think is gazing ‘gendered’? In other words, how does it reflect the power relations
between men and women?
Ô In a patriarchal society, men may feel freer to gaze than women.
7. Give an example of how we use eye movement to negate a verbal message.
4 When we use our eyes to indicate that a statement we have made is ironical or has the opposite
meaning of the one that might normally be received. A teacher who says, "You obviously have a
profound grasp of communication theory" but accompanies it with a despairing look upwards is most
likely telling an unfortunate student just the opposite.
4 You know a person is lying if her/his eyeballs move to the left. That means that she/he is just making
it up.

Give an example that shows not all NVC that contradicts a verbal message is necessarily deliberate or voluntary.
4 In situations where we may wish to appear relaxed and unconcerned about our chances of getting a
job, certain aspects of our non-verbal behavior may reveal the internal tension that we are feeling.
Wringing our hands or gripping the seat tightly both indicate stress.
9. Is it possible to control such tell-tale signs? Is it possible to prevent leakage?
10. Think of other instances when someone might try to hide their emotions (a) in a work situation and
(b) in a social setting.
11. What might give them away (in terms of voice, orientation, eye contact, etc.)?
IV.- FACIAL EXPRESSION -

How do you think are facial expressions important indicators to other people of our attitudes, state of mind and relationships to them?
Ô The human face has a complex arrangement of muscles that allows us to produce a whole range of
different expressions, most of which are an index of our feelings. Through our facial expression we
can indicate whether we are happy or sad or in pain. Facial expressions can tell others if we are glad
to see them or are angry with them or even afraid of them.
H Smiling - is an important facial gesture that indicates three things to others:

that we are ourselves happy and content
that we are pleased to see the other person
that we mean them no harm
H Smiling and frowning - are the two facial gestures we adopt during conflict

frown - we do this when we are angry and feeling aggressive
- we tighten our lips and lower our eyebrows to protect our eyes in an ensuing fight
- we accompany these with an unblinking stare to intimidate another person

smile - we do this when we become afraid and we tend to pull back the corners of our moths
exposing the teeth.
- this is a typical ‘fear face’ which is a submissive gesture to suggest to an opponent that we
are not a threat.

Think of situations where we have to smile in a forced way
4 when somebody takes our picture and we say ‘cheese’
4 when we want to give a false signal of comfort and fool our ‘enemies; in a card game
4 when a news anchor has to be perky in front of the video-camera
H We can detect liars through body language in that we cut off ourselves from the lies we are telling by:
Ô blinking more frequently
Ô touching our faces
V.- HAND GESTURES -
H Hand gestures reveal a good deal about our emotional state.

What gestures do we use when we want to indicate to people we are pleased with them or we are admonishing them?
Ô caressing versus pointing a warning index finger or punching
Ô thumbs up versus arms in the air/hands on the head because of exasperation

Think of an example that shows that hand gestures, just like language, also change their meaning
over time.
Ô handshaking - before for people meeting to demonstrate to one another that they are unarmed by
offering an open palm now a social greeting to demonstrate our friendly intentions
4 The handshake has countless variations
Ô "hands up or I will shoot!" - is also a sign of submission which tells others that the person is harmless
Ô (facial expressions) pouting - before to kiss now to point the direction
Ô (raising the eyebrows) - before to see clearer now to say ‘yes’
3. Think of how greeting rituals vary in terms of

gender
ethnicity
region
age
4 Caucasians’ handshakes are firmer because this is really how they greet each other and say goodbye.
4 Men’s handshakes are firmer than women’s
4 When introductions are first made, the elder person or the one with the higher rank, offers his/her
hand first when handshaking
4 Eskimos rub their noses in greeting
4 Saudi Arabians kiss
4 In Belgium, men handshake and women kiss
4. What judgements do you think people make about each other on the basis of handshakes?
Ô A firm handshake is a sign of a confident person
Ô A sloppy handshake is a sign of an uninterested/lazy/shy/afraid person
5. Why do captains of opposing teams shake hands before a game?
Ô To show that they’re good sports; "walang personalan, this is just a game"

Humans have started to walk on their hind legs and can now use their hands for making gestures which sometimes have replaced speech. Think of examples that show how hand gestures have replaced speech.
Ô sign language for the deaf
Ô when you’re busy talking with someone on the phone, you still can ‘talk’ to another person with your
hands and tell him/her to get something or go away or come closer or keep quiet, etc.
Ô financial markets, race tracks, gambling arenas, drug syndicates, magic tricks, miming, shadow talk, a
traffic aid directing the traffic, when you’re too far from the person to be heard, when you’re
reprimanding a child, when applauding, interpretative dancing, etc.

What do you think is the purpose of gesturing while talking?
Ô gesturing stresses our message

Why do you think do we gesture even when the person who we are talking to can’t see us?
Ô gesturing has become automatic

Watch a politician or other person addressing a public meeting either on television or, better still, by attending yourself. Make a list of the different types of gestures s/he uses.
How does each of these gestures relate to the message being spoken?
How do you, the audience, respond to different hand gestures?
Are there any gestures that make you more inclined to accept the verbal message?
VI.- DRESS -

How do you decide what to wear?
Do you always have a choice?
Are there clothes that you hate wearing?
Is your wardrobe organized into ‘outfits,’ that is, clothes that you know work well together?
What are the ‘rules’ that, even unconsciously, influence our choice of clothes?
(e.g. situation, time of day, gender)?
H Dress is often identified as an example of a code. As with all codes, there are certain conventions that
apply to the way in which things are done. These conventions have to do with the way in which we
combine items of clothing and the appropriateness of certain types of styles of dress to specific
situations. If we fail to observe the conventions then we risk giving offence. Or we may have got it
just wrong.
Examples:
è You turn up dressed as Batman or Robin to find that everyone else is in normal casual party dress.
Your fellow partygoers might enjoy a comic interlude at the sight of your discomfort in failing to
conform to the dress code for that occasion.
è You wear a loud and colorful dress for a funeral. Conventions demands that people wear black or
dark colored clothes as a symbol of mourning. People might think you’re disrespecting the dead
person and his/her family.

What kind of clothes does a ‘well-dressed’ person wear?
Ô S/he wears clothes that match (high heels with a miniskirt)
Ô S/he avoids color clashes (dark colors or all black in winter and light colors in summer)
Ô S/he avoids combining formal and informal garments (starched pants and sneakers)
(But some people successfully combine T-shirts and formal suits

When do we wear formal clothes?
Ô A uniform is an extreme example of formal dress. The business suit with its conservative dark shades
is worn to distinguish people who have ‘important’ jobs that require them to meet people and make
important decisions. Casual clothes are often seen as inappropriate in a business environment as most
companies are keen for employees to reflect a positive, clean-cut image of the firm through their own
appearance (efficient, smart and reliable).

When do we wear casual clothes?
Ô We wear casual clothes when relaxing or socializing because casual clothes are more comfortable and
this may make us feel and behave in a more relaxed way.
Ô When we want to present a reassuring image to another person or group.

Do the clothes we wear make a statement about us? Give examples of three very different types of attire and the reactions they are likely to provoke.
Think of a situation where you didn’t dress to make a statement, yet people still thought you
deliberately constructed a message.
H Once dress codes are established, people can choose to ignore, invert or play with those codes. Example: Kublai, a successful Davaoeno artist who prefers to work alone. He likes to create huge sculptures out of cement and wood, he paints with all kinds of mediums including the computer, he does poetry, he plays the flute, he chases waterfalls, he is a strict vegetarian. Kublai is so unconformist that he goes to business meetings wearing an inverted dirty T-shirt with holes!
H An interesting example of dress code is the use of uniform.

What is your attitude to school uniform?
What function do you think it is intended to serve?
How effectively do you think it serves this function?
Is uniform generally popular or unpopular with students?
What do you think are the reasons of wearing uniforms?
( A uniform signifies the role or function that the person wearing it performs
( It establishes identity and therefore creates unity
( It distinguishes the wearer from other persons
( police/army uniforms = signify the wearer’s rank and status; the more stripes and symbols the higher
the rank; different colors also show difference in ranks

How do uniforms usually have some impact on the behavior of both the wearer and those with whom they are in contact?
Ô This may be because a uniform provides us with a sense of belonging to a group and show to the
world that we share that group’s values. A uniform is a way of showing our allegiance.
Ô A uniforms also bestows on people a sense of authority. Note for instance how the uniforms of
security guards imitate those of police officers.

Make a list of how the clothing styles of different subcultures has served to identify people with
shared values.
Ô ‘hippies,’ ‘skinheads,’ ‘rockers,’ ‘istambay,’ ‘sosyal,’ ‘geeks,’ ‘fitness buffs,’ ‘intellectuals,’
18. Is it possible to dress in a wholly ‘individual’ way?
H Dress is just one aspect of the physical appearance that we present to the world. We might also consider such aspects as hairstyle, jewelry, make-up, body adornment (tattoos and piercing) and body modification. Each of these is open to interpretation by the people with whom we come into contact. Collectively they make a statement about ourselves and our system of values. Hair length or facial hair in men, for example, can determine the assumptions that people make about the person beneath. They act as signals to other people. Of course, like all signals, they are open to being read in a variety of different ways according to the attitudes, values and background of the ‘reader.’
VII.- POSTURE - is the way in which we position our bodies.
H Much of our early socialization has taught us the importance of an erect posture, which means
holding ourselves upright and straight to our full height. ‘Sit up straight,’ shoulders back’ or ‘chin up’
are instructions regularly heard at home and at school. Posture is also a means of indicating to another
person our feelings of friendship or hostility.

Make a list of postures that might be considered hostile.
Make a list of postures that might be considered friendly.
A person who slouches is thought of as being…?
Ô poor posture
Ô laziness/slovenly behavior

A person who has an upright posture is thought of as being…?
Ô confident
H The military and police forces are drilled into adopting this posture because it gives them an air of
confident authority. It is another sign of the status and role within society.
H Often, a person’s posture indicates how un/comfortable s/he feels about the person s/he is next to.
H People unconsciously imitate the postures of the people they are with. This is called mirroring or
postural congruence. Example: beauty contestants crossing their legs and fold their arms to copy
each other’s posture. This reinforces group identities and suggests conformity within the group.

Consider the ways in which people walk. What assumptions do we make when we see people?
Ô strut
Ô saunter
Ô swagger
Ô march
VIII.- PARALANGUAGE - is communication which is in the form of utterances other than the words themselves, e.g., the volume of one’s voice.
H When we speak, we don’t just communicate with words: we also make noises that aren’t words. We
raise and lower our voices. We pause, we hesitate, we make little laughs or coughs and splutters.
We stress some words (almost like underlining words when writing by hand or emboldening words
when word-processing). We say ‘um’ or ‘ah.’

Why do we use these sounds? How do they contribute to the meaning of our messages?
Ô One important function of paralanguage is to stop the flow of speech.
Examples:
4 When a news anchor reads the news, s/he rarely hesitates.
4 But when we are ‘conversing,’ hesitations are common and often pass unnoticed. We might
even be suspicious of a person who was too fluent in their speaking. We might think that s/he
rehearsed it.

We say ‘um’ and ‘ah’ to give us more time to consider what we are saying.
If somebody asks a difficult or embarrassing question, we say ‘um’ to give us time to think of an answer or an excuse.
If we ask someone direct questions, these hesitations can be interpreted as important signals indicating to us the amount of trust we can put in the response that follows.
In court, a hesitation may tell rather more than the words that follow it.
H People also o have individual speech patterns which can make their voices distinctive and
memorable. Pitch, tone, stress, accent and pace are other aspects or paralanguage that can determine
how the messages that we utter are interpreted.
‘The house is one fire’
é If this sentence is spoken, in the absence of any visible punctuation marks, it could be interpreted as a statement or as a question. What would determine the way that we might interpret such an utterance is HOW it is spoken. (It can be a question or a statement which may be interpreted as a warning, an alarm and a plea for help).
é The volume of our utterances can clearly impact on the way the message is interpreted.
SHOUT = when we are angry or excited
WHISPER = when we tell a secret or when a baby is sleeping and we don’t want to wake it up

Do you have an accent?
How do you think people are likely to react to the way in which you speak?
Are the assumptions they might make correct?
10. How do people’s accents make you react?
11. What is considered to be the ‘correct’ way in which to speak the English language?
; WRAP UP: There are clear links between verbal and non-verbal communication. Most of the time
when we communicate, we use a whole repertoire of skills to construct messages.
Ø In conversation with someone, we indicate that we want them to, for example, listen to us or to react
to what we’ve said. We call these indications cues. Many cues are signaled paralinguistically. Others
are achieved by non-verbal behavior such as eye contact and facial expression.
Ø What do you think is more important in the construction of messages - non-verbal communication or
verbal communication? (Do some research by carefully observing how people use both verbal and
non-verbal signals in different situations and how other people respond to them.)

Ø In conversation with someone, we indicate that we want them to, for example, listen to us or to react
to what we’ve said. We call these indications cues. Many cues are signaled paralinguistically. Others
are achieved by non-verbal behavior such as eye contact and facial expression.
Ø What sort of signals, verbal and non-verbal, do we use to close a conversation? How do these
differ from those we use to initiate one?
Ø One of the important functions of NVC in its different forms is as a regulator to control the flow of
conversation. When two people speak to each other, they generally do so in an ordered fashion. Each
takes a turn at speaking. This is achieved as a result of our learning to read different signals that
indicate to the other person whether we are intending to continue speaking or wish them to speak.
And much of what goes on is predictable largely because it is governed by convention.
4 ‘How are you?’ as a greeting is generally followed by ‘Fine, thanks. How are you?’ Other
responses are of course possible, but social convention determines that this is the most likely
exchange.

Õ This predictability is also known as redundancy.

It is an important way of strengthening social bonds.
It is a means of ensuring that a message is accurately received.
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Thirteenth Article: Proxemic Theory of Edward Hall
http://www.afirstlook.com/main.htm (Theory Archives)
è What is the article about? Answer: The way people perceive distance is culturally conditioned.

To an American, an Arab comes on way too strong. He stands so close that his face is only a foot away from the American’s. There’s no letup in the Arab’s penetrating gaze, and his voice is too loud. The smell of his breath is disconcerting, and the American shudders at the feel of the Arab’s hand on his arm.
To an Arab, an American comes over as devious and aloof. The American averts his eyes, denies the Arab his breath, and covers up his natural body scent.
ê For Arabs, it’s okay to touch another because they are a "contact" people. Arabs don’t even have
words for privacy or rape. On the other hand, Americans, Asians and Northern Europeans have a
"non-contact" culture. They feel an aversion to casual touch and resent spatial intrusion.
ê So travelers, when you’re going around the world remember that "When in Rome, stand as the
Romans stand."
è Most spatial interpretation is outside of our awareness. Since we don’t even think about it, we never
question the rightness of our actions. We learn dos and don’ts by observing others rather than through
systematic instruction.

è Animals are territorial. Some mark their space with urine to stake a claim for privacy. Humans do this
by using furniture, walls, and fences.
è Animals ignore other animals who are outside their territory. Intruders are instinctively attacked.
Humans too have an invisible bubble around their bodies. Friends are welcome to enter it, strangers
not.
How does Hall categorize distance? (Take note that Hall’s classification system is not definite because he did his research on a small group of friends who were upper-middle-class Eastern professionals)
Õ intimate (0 to 18 inches)
- playful wrestling and lovemaking
- this is the voluntary selected gap between people who are drawn to each other
- vision is distorted and any vocalization is a whisper, moan or grunt
- the main ways of judging the intervening space are though body heat, smell and touch
- enforced closeness in crowded elevators doesn’t count
- assumption: sometimes, when we’re directly wired to another person’s emotions, our feelings
change in sync to match his or her mood
Õ personal (18 inches to 4 feet)

here we lose the sense of body heat but retain the most powerful odors
eyesight begins to focus and vocalization comes into play.
although only ritualized touch is typical, the other person is still at arm’s length, available to be grasped, held or shoved away
the distance shows the closeness of the relationship
Õ social (4 to 10 feet)

this is the zone of impersonal transaction
we rely solely on what we can see and hear
by the middle of the range, the eye can focus on an entire face when the distance is more than eight feet
it’s okay to ignore another’s presence and it’s easy to disengage from a conversation
Õ public (10 feet to infinity)

you can no longer pick up subtle nuances of meaning from the face or tone of voice
the eye can take in the whole body at a glance
it’s the distance of the lecture hall, mass meetings, and interactions with powerful figures until such time as they bid you to come closer
è What is Michale Argyle’s Equilibrium Theory?
ê notion: Any relationship can be plotted on a scale showing the degree of intimacy. Persons
communicating adjust their nonverbal actions to maintain a degree of intimacy. They
have to keep a relationship at the desired "temperature."

4 Distance and eye contact are used to counterbalance each other in a
subconscious attempt to preserve the status quo. Sitting too near may make
you let your gaze slide away to restore a proper sense of balance. Sitting too
far may make you focus your eyes on the instructor to reestablish equilibrium.

4 Twenty people squeezed into an elevator seem to be fascinated by the indicator
lights and look at it. This is because by looking up at the lights, they avoid
having to exchange even a momentary glance with the other riders. Turning
around to face the people behind would increase the pulse rate and the blood
pressure.
è What is Judee Burgoon’s Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Model?
ê prediction: In some cases, breaking the rules will help the offender reach a communication
goal. What someone expects doesn’t mean you’re going to act that way. What
will happen if you don’t? If the distance you choose doesn’t come close to the
one forecasted, the expectancy violations will cause arousal and distraction which
can be good or bad depending on the relationship.

4 For instance, if you’re standing too near your teacher, instead of concentrating on what
you say, s/he will start wondering about the nature of your relationship. This could be
good news or bad news depending on whether your presence is seen in positive terms
or in negative terms.
4 If you come across as a person who is unattractive and with little to offer, the spotlight
on your relationship is going to detract from your purpose. So, according to Judee,
"Don’t do it!" Stifle your deviant tendencies, and do your best to conform to the
spatial expectations.
4 It’s a different story if your instructor likes you. When the violation is in the direction
of unexpected nearness, it comes as a pleasant surprise. Because you’re nice to be
near, physical closeness is translated into a psychological closeness which fosters
greater understanding, trust, attitude change, etc. which you seek through
communication.
ê When we notice that a person has taken up a position further away than we anticipated, we
search the social context for clues that will help us understand what it means. At first blush the
unexpected void is disconcerting. But if it’s accompanied by words and smiles that take the
‘sting’ our of the space, the valued rule breaker becomes even more valued.
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Twelfth Article:
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp.61-66)

Twelfth Article:
"Theories of Human Communication" by Littlejohn, Stephen W. (pp.61-66)
Thirteenth Article: Proxemic Theory of Edward Hall
http://www.afirstlook.com/main.htm (Theory Archives)
*SEVENTH SESSION: July 1, 2004 (Test/s & written requirements)
*EIGTH SESSION: July 6, 2004 (Test/s & written requirements)
*NINTH SESSION: July 8, 2004 (Test/s & written requirements)
*TENTH SESSION: July 13, 2004 (Test/s & written requirements
*ELEVENTH SESSION: July 15, 2004 (Test/s & written resquirements)
*TWELFTH SESSION: July 20, 2004 (Prelim Exam)
*THIRTEENTH SESSION: July 22, 2004 (lecture 10, 11 & 12)
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION THEORIES

2004-02-05T17:29:00.000-08:00

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